18 research outputs found

    Inclusive Cognitive Hierarchy

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    Cognitive hierarchy theory, a collection of structural models of non-equilibrium thinking, in which players' best responses rely on heterogeneous beliefs on others' strategies including naive behavior, proved powerful in explaining observations from a wide range of games. We introduce an inclusive cognitive hierarchy model, in which players do not rule out the possibility of facing opponents at their own thinking level. Our theoretical results show that inclusiveness is crucial for asymptotic properties of deviations from equilibrium behavior in expansive games. We show that the limiting behaviors are categorized in three distinct types: naive, Savage rational with inconsistent beliefs, and sophisticated. We test the model in a laboratory experiment of collective decision-making. The data suggests that inclusiveness is indispensable with regard to explanatory power of the models of hierarchical thinking.Series: Department of Strategy and Innovation Working Paper Serie

    A resurrection of the Condorcet Jury Theorem

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    This paper analyzes the optimal size of a deliberating committee where (i) there is no conflict of interest among individuals and (ii) information acquisition is costly. The committee members simultaneously decide whether to acquire information, and then make the ex-post efficient decision. The optimal committee size, k*, is shown to be bounded. The main result of this paper is that any arbitrarily large committee aggregates the decentralized information more efficiently than the committee of size k*-2. This result implies that oversized committees generate only small inefficiencies.Voting, information aggregation, costly information

    How proper is the dominance-solvable outcome?

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    We examine the conditions under which iterative elimination of weakly dominated strategies refines the set of proper outcomes of a normal-form game. We say that the proper inclusion holds in terms of outcome if the set of outcomes of all proper equilibria in the reduced game is included in the set of all proper outcomes of the original game. We show by examples that neither dominance solvability nor the transference of decision-maker indifference condition (TDI of Marx and Swinkels [1997]) implies proper inclusion. When both dominance solvablility and the TDI condition are satisfied, a positive result arises: the game has a unique stable outcome. Hence, the proper inclusion is guaranteed

    Trapped by the Prisoner’s Dilemma, the United States Presidential Election Needs a Coordination Device

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    Summary:The system according to which the President of the United States of America is elected, the Electoral College, has often raised concerns. Among those, the winner-take-all rule is often criticized for potentially – and in recent years effectively – bringing to power a president who has not obtained the majority of the popular vote. This note shows that most of the reform proposals have failed due to the structure of the problem: the US Presidential Election is trapped by the Prisoner’s Dilemma. Each state would rationally choose the winner-take-all rule in order to best reflect its citizens’ preferences on the federal decision. However, the outcome of such a choice, if adopted by all states, would not be desirable for the nation as a whole, because it prevents the optimal aggregation of all citizens’ preferences. A weighted proportional rule, if used by all states, would make all citizens better off by reflecting their preferences on the final decision more accurately. However, since each state has an incentive to adopt the winner-take-all rule regardless of the choice of the other states, it is impossible for all the states to adopt such a rule without a coordination device. We therefore analyze interesting attempts to escape from this dilemma, such as the National Popular Vote Interstate Compact, and how our framework applies to representative democracy.Key points: The winner-take-all rule has been used almost exclusively in the US presidential elections since the 1830s, but has been criticized for various reasons. One of these is the occasional discrepancy between the election winner and the national popular vote results (e.g. George W. Bush vs. Al Gore in 2000, and Donald Trump vs. Hilary Clinton in 2016). The structure of the problem can be described with a game-theoretic analysis, at least partially: the Electoral College system is trapped by the Prisoner’s Dilemma. States could benefit from cooperating, but they do not achieve this because each state does not have any guarantee that the other states would join a cooperative action. A coordination device is necessary in order to escape from the dilemma. Some interesting attempts, such as the National Popular Vote Interstate Compact, are underway. The same structure of the dilemma appears in representative democracy. Party discipline may induce distortion of the preference aggregation and thus may be welfare-detrimental for the society.Summary:The system according to which the President of the United States of America is elected, the Electoral College, has often raised concerns. Among those, the winner-take-all rule is often criticized for potentially – and in recent years effectively – bringing to power a president who has not obtained the majority of the popular vote. This note shows that most of the reform proposals have failed due to the structure of the problem: the US Presidential Election is trapped by the Prisoner’s Dilemma. Each state would rationally choose the winner-take-all rule in order to best reflect its citizens’ preferences on the federal decision. However, the outcome of such a choice, if adopted by all states, would not be desirable for the nation as a whole, because it prevents the optimal aggregation of all citizens’ preferences. A weighted proportional rule, if used by all states, would make all citizens better off by reflecting their preferences on the final decision more accurately. However, since each state has an incentive to adopt the winner-take-all rule regardless of the choice of the other states, it is impossible for all the states to adopt such a rule without a coordination device. We therefore analyze interesting attempts to escape from this dilemma, such as the National Popular Vote Interstate Compact, and how our framework applies to representative democracy.Key points: The winner-take-all rule has been used almost exclusively in the US presidential elections since the 1830s, but has been criticized for various reasons. One of these is the occasional discrepancy between the election winner and the national popular vote results (e.g. George W. Bush vs. Al Gore in 2000, and Donald Trump vs. Hilary Clinton in 2016). The structure of the problem can be described with a game-theoretic analysis, at least partially: the Electoral College system is trapped by the Prisoner’s Dilemma. States could benefit from cooperating, but they do not achieve this because each state does not have any guarantee that the other states would join a cooperative action. A coordination device is necessary in order to escape from the dilemma. Some interesting attempts, such as the National Popular Vote Interstate Compact, are underway. The same structure of the dilemma appears in representative democracy. Party discipline may induce distortion of the preference aggregation and thus may be welfare-detrimental for the society

    The Winner-Take-All Dilemma

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    This paper considers collective decision-making when individuals are partitioned into groups (e.g., states or parties) endowed with voting weights. We study a game in which each group chooses an internal rule that specifies the allocation of its weight to the alternatives as a function of its members' preferences. We show that under quite general conditions, the game is a Prisoner's Dilemma: while the winner-take-all rule is a dominant strategy, the equilibrium is Pareto dominated. We also show asymptotic Pareto dominance of the proportional rule. Our numerical computation for the US Electoral College verifies the sensibility of the asymptotic results.June 2019. Revised December 2019

    The Winner-Take-All Dilemma

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    Elections présidentielles américaines : comment sortir du dilemme du prisonnier ?

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    RĂ©sumĂ© :Le mode de scrutin prĂ©sidentiel des Etats-Unis d’AmĂ©rique, basĂ© sur un collĂšge de grands Ă©lecteurs, est souvent sujet Ă  controverse. En particulier, l’utilisation du scrutin selon la rĂšgle “winner-take-all” est souvent critiquĂ©e, car elle a pour consĂ©quence potentielle d’amener au pouvoir un prĂ©sident qui n’a pas obtenu la majoritĂ© des suffrages populaires, ce qui s’est effectivement rĂ©alisĂ© en 2016 et en 2000. Cette note montre que la plupart des propositions de rĂ©forme ont Ă©chouĂ© Ă  cause de la nature du problĂšme : les Etats composant les Etats-Unis sont dans une situation de dilemme du prisonnier. Chaque Etat a intĂ©rĂȘt, d’un point de vue rationnel, Ă  choisir la rĂšgle “winner-take-all” dans le but de reflĂ©ter au mieux l’opinion de ses citoyens au niveau fĂ©dĂ©ral. Mais la consĂ©quence d’un tel mode de scrutin, lorsqu’il est adoptĂ© par tous les Etats, empĂȘche une agrĂ©gation optimale des prĂ©fĂ©rences des citoyens au niveau national, ce qui n’est pas dĂ©sirable pour la sociĂ©tĂ© dans son ensemble. Un scrutin proportionnel pondĂ©rĂ©, s’il Ă©tait utilisĂ© par tous les Etats, permettrait que la dĂ©cision finale soit plus reprĂ©sentative des prĂ©fĂ©rences de tous les citoyens. Cependant, comme chaque Etat a un intĂ©rĂȘt Ă  unilatĂ©ralement choisir la rĂšgle “winner-take-all”, quel que soit le mode de scrutin choisi par les autres Etats, il est impossible que tous les Etats adoptent une telle rĂšgle sans un dispositif de coordination. Nous analysons ici des propositions intĂ©ressantes pour Ă©chapper Ă  ce dilemme, tel que l’accord inter-Etats du vote national populaire, et comment notre modĂšle s’applique Ă  la dĂ©mocratie reprĂ©sentative.Points clĂ©s : La quasi-totalitĂ© des Etats utilisent la rĂšgle “winner-take-all” pour l’élection du prĂ©sident amĂ©ricain depuis les annĂ©es 1830. Mais ce choix est critiquĂ© pour plusieurs raisons. L’une d’entre elles est l’élection d’un prĂ©sident qui n’obtient pas toujours la majoritĂ© des voix au niveau fĂ©dĂ©ral (George W. Bush contre Al Gore en 2000; ou Donald Trump contre Hilary Clinton en 2016). Le problĂšme peut en partie ĂȘtre dĂ©crit en mobilisant la thĂ©orie des jeux. Le systĂšme de collĂšge Ă©lectoral est enfermĂ© dans un dilemme du prisonnier : tous les Etats auraient intĂ©rĂȘt Ă  coopĂ©rer, mais aucun ne le fait car aucun n’est assurĂ© que les autres Etats vont choisir de coopĂ©rer. Un dispositif de coordination est nĂ©cessaire pour Ă©chapper Ă  ce dilemme. Certaines tentatives intĂ©ressantes sont actuellement Ă  l’Ɠuvre, par exemple l’accord inter-Etats du vote national populaire. On peut retrouver un dilemme similaire dans une dĂ©mocratie reprĂ©sentative. La discipline de vote dans les parlements peut induire des distorsions dans l’agrĂ©gation des prĂ©fĂ©rences, ce qui peut ĂȘtre prĂ©judiciable pour la sociĂ©tĂ©.RĂ©sumĂ© :Le mode de scrutin prĂ©sidentiel des Etats-Unis d’AmĂ©rique, basĂ© sur un collĂšge de grands Ă©lecteurs, est souvent sujet Ă  controverse. En particulier, l’utilisation du scrutin selon la rĂšgle “winner-take-all” est souvent critiquĂ©e, car elle a pour consĂ©quence potentielle d’amener au pouvoir un prĂ©sident qui n’a pas obtenu la majoritĂ© des suffrages populaires, ce qui s’est effectivement rĂ©alisĂ© en 2016 et en 2000. Cette note montre que la plupart des propositions de rĂ©forme ont Ă©chouĂ© Ă  cause de la nature du problĂšme : les Etats composant les Etats-Unis sont dans une situation de dilemme du prisonnier. Chaque Etat a intĂ©rĂȘt, d’un point de vue rationnel, Ă  choisir la rĂšgle “winner-take-all” dans le but de reflĂ©ter au mieux l’opinion de ses citoyens au niveau fĂ©dĂ©ral. Mais la consĂ©quence d’un tel mode de scrutin, lorsqu’il est adoptĂ© par tous les Etats, empĂȘche une agrĂ©gation optimale des prĂ©fĂ©rences des citoyens au niveau national, ce qui n’est pas dĂ©sirable pour la sociĂ©tĂ© dans son ensemble. Un scrutin proportionnel pondĂ©rĂ©, s’il Ă©tait utilisĂ© par tous les Etats, permettrait que la dĂ©cision finale soit plus reprĂ©sentative des prĂ©fĂ©rences de tous les citoyens. Cependant, comme chaque Etat a un intĂ©rĂȘt Ă  unilatĂ©ralement choisir la rĂšgle “winner-take-all”, quel que soit le mode de scrutin choisi par les autres Etats, il est impossible que tous les Etats adoptent une telle rĂšgle sans un dispositif de coordination. Nous analysons ici des propositions intĂ©ressantes pour Ă©chapper Ă  ce dilemme, tel que l’accord inter-Etats du vote national populaire, et comment notre modĂšle s’applique Ă  la dĂ©mocratie reprĂ©sentative.Points clĂ©s : La quasi-totalitĂ© des Etats utilisent la rĂšgle “winner-take-all” pour l’élection du prĂ©sident amĂ©ricain depuis les annĂ©es 1830. Mais ce choix est critiquĂ© pour plusieurs raisons. L’une d’entre elles est l’élection d’un prĂ©sident qui n’obtient pas toujours la majoritĂ© des voix au niveau fĂ©dĂ©ral (George W. Bush contre Al Gore en 2000; ou Donald Trump contre Hilary Clinton en 2016). Le problĂšme peut en partie ĂȘtre dĂ©crit en mobilisant la thĂ©orie des jeux. Le systĂšme de collĂšge Ă©lectoral est enfermĂ© dans un dilemme du prisonnier : tous les Etats auraient intĂ©rĂȘt Ă  coopĂ©rer, mais aucun ne le fait car aucun n’est assurĂ© que les autres Etats vont choisir de coopĂ©rer. Un dispositif de coordination est nĂ©cessaire pour Ă©chapper Ă  ce dilemme. Certaines tentatives intĂ©ressantes sont actuellement Ă  l’Ɠuvre, par exemple l’accord inter-Etats du vote national populaire. On peut retrouver un dilemme similaire dans une dĂ©mocratie reprĂ©sentative. La discipline de vote dans les parlements peut induire des distorsions dans l’agrĂ©gation des prĂ©fĂ©rences, ce qui peut ĂȘtre prĂ©judiciable pour la sociĂ©tĂ©

    A resurrection of the Condorcet Jury Theorem

    No full text
    This paper analyzes the optimal size of a deliberating committee where (i) there is no conflict of interest among individuals and (ii) information acquisition is costly. The committee members simultaneously decide whether to acquire information, and then make the ex-post efficient decision. The optimal committee size, k*, is shown to be bounded. The main result of this paper is that any arbitrarily large committee aggregates the decentralized information more efficiently than the committee of size k*-2. This result implies that oversized committees generate only small inefficiencies

    Inclusive Cognitive Hierarchy in Collective Decisions

    No full text
    We study the implications of structural models of non-equilibrium thinking, in which players best respond while holding heterogeneous beliefs on the cognitive levels of others. We introduce an inclusive cognitive hierarchy model, in which players are capable of projecting the self to others in regard to their cognitive level. The model is tested in a laboratory experiment of collective decision-making, which supports inclusiveness. Our theoretical results show that inclusiveness is a key factor for asymptotic properties of deviations from equilibrium behavior. Asymptotic behavior can be categorized into three distinct types: naĂŻve, Savage rational with inconsistent beliefs, and sophisticated
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